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قديم 29-01-2008, 04:59 PM
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بحث لأنواع الكمبيوتر بالانجليزي
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

اقدم لكم البحث بعنوان انواع الكمبيوتر باللغه الانجليزيه وهويتكلم عن وضائف الانواع بشكل عاام وو صايا وكلمه ختاميه وارجو ان يستفيد منه الجميع .................


1. Introducing and development of Types of Computer
For centuries, humans have needed help in calculating. Making trade transactions, taking a population census, or figuring out the distance between two stars takes tons of calculating. And if you want an accurate result, no mistakes are allowed.
The earliest calculator was the human hand and its fingers. When quantities larger than fingers needed counting, various natural items like pebbles and twigs were used.
The abacus was one of many counting devices invented to help count large numbers.
There is a difference between counting boards and abaci. The counting board is a piece of wood, stone or metal with carved grooves or painted lines. Beads, pebbles or metal discs were moved between the lines or grooves to count. The abacus is a device of wood or plastic with a frame that holds rods with freely-sliding beads mounted on them.
Both the abacus and the counting board are mechanical aids used for counting. They are not what we think of as a modern calculators. The person operating the abacus performs calculations in his head and uses the abacus as a physical aid to keep track of the sums. Some tradesmen still use them nowadays to make their calculations on the markets in Asia, for example.
Mechanical Machines: In the 17th century, mechanical machines were invented for counting. But these machines were not very practical to use.
Blaise Pascal invented the first calculating machine. Credited with founding the modern theory of probability, he also discovered the properties of the cycloid (or roulette) and contributed to the advance of differential calculus. As a physicist, his failed attempts to discredit the notion that 'nature abhors a vacuum' led to the invention of the barometer, hydraulic press and syringe. The SI unit (International System of units) of pressure, the Pascal, and a computer programming language are named after him.
A Protean Computer: It was a scientist in the 19th century, Charles Babbage, who had the idea of a machine which could be programmed like a computer. But the machine, called the Difference Engine, was so complex that it was not possible for him to manufacture it with the mechanical technologies of the time. It had to wait until 1991 when it was finally built as envisaged by Babbage’s plans! Of course, it wasn’t useful anymore since a much more powerful calculator—the computer—had been invented. None of the three computing machines designed by Babbage—the two Difference Engines and the Analytical Engine—were fully constructed during his lifetime.
Also known as Lady Lovelace, Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, is considered the first computer programmer. She wrote a description of Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine, which he designed after the Difference Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes which specified in complete detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine. These notes are recognized by historians as the world's first computer program. She also speculated that "the Engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent." This is part of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory. In 1991, working from Babbage's original plans, the London Science Museum constructed a Difference Engine, which functioned perfectly.


2. Definitions and Classifications of Types of Computer and Development
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words imply the size, expected use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can apply to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the user through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen.

• PC - The personal computer (PC) defines a computer designed for general use by a single person. While a Mac is a PC, most people relate the term with systems that run the Windows operating system. PCs were first known as microcomputers because they were a complete computer but built on a smaller scale than the huge systems in use by most businesses.
• Desktop - A PC that is not designed for portability. The expectation with desktop systems are that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren.
• Laptop - Also called notebooks, laptops are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book.
• Palmtop - More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), palmtops are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touchscreen technology for user input. Palmtops are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the palmtop is the handheld computer.
• Workstation - A desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development.
• Server - A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.
• Mainframe - In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge computers that could fill an entire room or even a whole floor! As the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased, the term mainframe has fallen out of use in favor of enterprise server. You'll still hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines processing millions of transactions every day.
• Minicomputer - Another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall in between microcomputers (PCs) and mainframes (enterprise servers). Minicomputers are normally referred to as mid-range servers now.
• Supercomputer - This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most are comprised of multiple high performance computers working in parallel as a single system. The best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.
• Wearable - The latest trend in computing is wearable computers. Essentially, common computer applications (e-mail, database, multimedia, calendar/scheduler) are integrated into watches, cell phones, visors and even clothing!
3. Why types of Computer

• Increased Employability. If you have basic computer knowledge along with specific job skills, employers will consider you more trainable in and adaptable to the computerized work environment.

• Greater Earnings Potential. As you increase your computer skills, you become a more valuable worker, especially if you focus on high-tech skills such as programming, network administration, or hardware maintenance. However, you do not have to become a computer expert to increase your earnings. Skills that involve application of the computer to specific tasks (such as desktop publishing or database management) are highly valued.


• Greater Access to Resources. Computers are incredible learning tools, especially when you have access to data on CD-ROMs or the Internet. You can use a PC to access vast knowledge bases on almost any topic, search archives of information dating back decades, and even take online courses for credit.

• Greater Control of Assets. Using the power of the Internet and only a little knowledge of computers, you can manage your personal finances and indulge your interests in ways that were not possible just a few years ago. Online banking and investing give you control of every dollar you earn. Online shopping makes it easier than ever to spend your money, too. New technologies enable you to monitor your entire household via a PC—to set your air conditioner or alarm clock, start your coffee maker or sprinklers, and activate your alarm system.

• Courier Dispatchers. Courier services of all types use computerized terminals to help dispatchers schedule deliveries, locate pickup and drop-off points, generate invoices, and track the location of packages. Such systems are used by cross-town delivery services and by national carriers such as Federal Express.

• Construction Managers. Construction managers and estimators use specialized software to analyze construction documents and to calculate the amount of materials and time required to complete a job. These computerized tools--which often read information directly from disk files provided by the architect--help contractors manage costs and make competitive bids. On the job site, construction workers use computerized measuring devices and laser beams to calculate precise measurements quickly. Field managers and laborers alike routinely use portable computers to check plans and other construction documents or to manage inventories of materials.

• Automotive Mechanics. Automotive mechanics and technicians use computer systems to measure vehicle performance, diagnose mechanical problems, and determine maintenance or repair strategies. These systems are sometimes networked to regional or national databases of automotive information.





4. Conclusion
Today, computers are no longer specialized tools used only by scientists or engineers. They do not hum behind sealed, glass walls in climate-controlled environments. Computer systems are everywhere—in places you cannot see or would not expect to find them. They are a fact of life, a common thread that ties together our education, work, and home life
With computers touching nearly every facet of our lives, the issue of computer literacy becomes important. But what is computer literacy, and why is it so crucial? Why should you spend your time and energy studying books like this one, and becoming "computer literate"?
Technically, to be "literate" in a subject means to have knowledge of that subject. You understand its basic terms and concepts. As an example, consider driving a car. If you have a driver’s license, then you are literate in driving-related terms and you understand the rules of the road. You were not born with such knowledge or abilities, but it may be hard to imagine living without them today.
Someday, perhaps sooner than you think, you may not be able to imagine living without computer skills. Consider the fact that computers are an essential part of business today, whether you are an auto mechanic or a surgeon, a journalist or an airline pilot. Like the cars that take us to work each day, we rely on computers more with each passing year. If you do not use a computer regularly, chances are great that you will soon.
Much is being done to make computers easier, safer, and more comfortable to use. Ergonomics, the study of the physical relationship between people and their tools--such as their computers--addresses these issues. Thanks to the publicity that computer-related injuries have received over the past decade, most people now recognize the importance of ergonomically correct computer furniture and proper techniques for using the computer. (The term ergonomically correct means that a product is designed to work properly with the human body, reducing the risk of strain, stress, or other types of injuries.)


Because of the growth of computer technologies, we now live in an information society —where information is considered to be an extremely valuable commodity. Those who control important information, or who simply know how to access and use it, are key players in the information-based economy. Computer literacy and the skills you can build with that literacy are essential to success in this society, not just in our working lives, but in the way we learn, manage our finances, and improve our standard of living.

Although there are still many professions that do not rely on computers, they are becoming fewer all the time. Remember that computers do not necessarily take the form of a PC, so there is a good chance that your career path will bring you in contact with some type of computer. Many of the tools in today's workplace use computer technology.








5. Recommendations

Computers are wonderful tools. They help us work more productively, they provide new opportunities for communication and education, and they can be entertaining. For these reasons and others, many people find themselves spending increasing amounts of time using their computer and the Internet.

So it is important to have a basic understanding of computer technology. Regardless of your career choice, you can benefit from a knowledge of computer hardware and software, and how these components function together. Even if your job does not require you to work directly with a computer, this knowledge may help you to envision new ways of using computers in your work, resulting in a more productive work environment. This can also lead to career advancement opportunities. If you think this case is being overstated, and that computers are not being used that much, consider this: computers are popping up in places and professions that may seem unlikely.

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the success of every enterprise. While today nearly every organization uses a substantial number of computers and communication tools ( telephones, fax, personal handheld devices), they are often still isolated. While managers today are able to use the newest applications, many departments still do not communicate and much needed information cannot be readily accessed.

To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer networks are necessary. They are a new kind (one might call it paradigm) of organization of computer systems produced by the need to merge computers and communications. At the same time they are the means to converge the two areas; the unnecessary distinction between tools to process and store information and tools to collect and transport information can disappear. Computer networks can manage to put down the barriers between information held on several (not only computer) systems. Only with the help of computer networks can a borderless communication and information environment be built.

Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of the same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the organizational learning rate, which many authors declare as the only fundamental advantage in competition.

والسلام خير ختام ولا اوصيكم بالدعاء لي ولوالدي.